I-Ev Charger Technologies

Ubuchwepheshe bokushaja kwe-EV e-China nase-United States bufana ngokubanzi.Kuwo womabili la mazwe, izintambo namapulaki kuwubuchwepheshe obusa kakhulu bokushaja izimoto zikagesi.(Ukushaja okungenantambo nokushintshashintsha kwebhethri okungenani kunobukhona obuncane.) Kukhona umehluko phakathi kwamazwe amabili maqondana namazinga okushaja, amazinga okushaja kanye nezinqubo zokuxhumana.Lokhu kufana nokwehluka kuzoxoxwa ngakho ngezansi.

A. Amaleveli wokushaja

E-United States, ukushaja okuningi kwe-EV kwenzeka kuma-volts angu-120 kusetshenziswa izindawo zodonga lwasekhaya ezingalungiswanga.Lokhu ngokuvamile kwaziwa ngeleLeveli 1 noma ukushaja “kwe-trickle”.Ngokushaja kweLeveli 1, ibhethri elijwayelekile elingu-30 kWh lithatha cishe amahora angu-12 ukusuka ku-20% licishe ligcwale.(Awekho ama-volt angama-120 e-China.)

E-China nase-United States, ukushaja okuningi kwe-EV kwenzeka kuma-volts angu-220 (e-China) noma angu-240 volts (e-United States).E-United States, lokhu kwaziwa njengokushaja kweLeveli 2.

Ukushaja okunjalo kungase kwenzeke ngezitolo ezingashintshiwe noma okokusebenza okukhethekile kwe-EV futhi ngokuvamile kusebenzisa amandla angaba ngu-6–7 kW.Uma ishaja ngama-volts angu-220–240, ibhethri elivamile elingu-30 kWh lithatha cishe amahora angu-6 ukusuka ku-20% liye cishe ekushajeni okugcwele.

Okokugcina, i-China ne-United States inamanethiwekhi akhulayo amashaja asheshayo e-DC, ngokuvamile asebenzisa amandla angu-24 kW, angu-50 kW, angu-100 kW noma angu-120 kW.Ezinye iziteshi zingase zinikeze amandla angu-350 kW noma ngisho nama-400 kW.Lawa mashaja asheshayo e-DC angathatha ibhethri lemoto ukusuka ku-20% ukuya ekushajweni okugcwele ngezikhathi ezisukela cishe ihora elilodwa ukuya emizuzwini eyi-10.

Ithebula 6:Amaleveli okushaja avame kakhulu e-US

Umthombo: Umnyango Wezamandla wase-US

B. Amazinga Wokushaja

i.China

I-China inezinga elilodwa lokushaja okusheshayo kwe-EV ezweni lonke.I-US inezindinganiso ezintathu zokushaja okusheshayo kwe-EV.

Izinga lesiShayina laziwa nge-China GB/T.(IziqaloGBmelela izinga likazwelonke.)

I-China GB/T ikhishwe ngo-2015 ngemva kweminyaka eminingana yentuthuko.124 Manje sekuyimpoqo kuzo zonke izimoto zikagesi ezintsha ezithengiswa e-China.Abakhiqizi bezimoto bamazwe ngamazwe, okuhlanganisa i-Tesla, i-Nissan ne-BMW, ​​bamukele indinganiso ye-GB/T yama-EV abo athengiswa e-China.I-GB/T okwamanje ivumela ukushaja okusheshayo okufika ku-237.5 kW okukhiphayo (ku-950 V naku-250 amps), nakuba kuningi

Amashaja asheshayo e-DC yaseShayina ahlinzeka ngokushaja okungu-50 kW.I-GB/T entsha izokhishwa ngo-2019 noma ngo-2020, okubikwa ukuthi izothuthukisa izinga ukuze ihlanganise nokushaja afinyelela ku-900 kW ezimotweni ezinkulu zebhizinisi.I-GB/T izinga laseShayina kuphela: ama-EV ambalwa enziwe e-China athunyelwa phesheya asebenzisa amanye amazinga.125

Ngo-August 2018, i-China Electricity Council (CEC) yamemezela isivumelwano sokusebenzisana nenethiwekhi ye-CHAdeMO, ezinze e-Japan, ukuthuthukisa ngokuhlanganyela ukushaja okushesha kakhulu.Umgomo uwukuhambisana phakathi kwe-GB/T ne-CHAdeMO yokushaja okusheshayo.Lezi zinhlangano ezimbili zizosebenzisana ukuze kwandiswe izinga emazweni angale kweShayina neJapan.126

ii.I-united states

E-United States, kunamazinga amathathu wokushaja ama-EV wokushaja okusheshayo kwe-DC: i-CHAdeMO, i-CCS SAE Combo ne-Tesla.

I-CHAdeMO kwakuyizinga lokuqala lokushaja ngokushesha i-EV, esukela ngo-2011. Yathuthukiswa yi-Tokyo

I-Electric Power Company futhi imele ukuthi “Charge to Move” (i-pun ngesiJapane).127 I-CHAdeMO okwamanje isetshenziswa e-United States e-Nissan Leaf ne-Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV, ephakathi kwezimoto zikagesi ezithengiswa kakhulu.Impumelelo yeLeaf e-United States ingase ibeIYASHAJA IMOTO KAgesi ECHINA NASE-UNITED STATES

ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU |FEBRUARY 2019 |

ngenxa yengxenye yokuzibophezela kukaNissan kusenesikhathi sokwethula ingqalasizinda eshesha ukushaja i-CHAdeMO ezindaweni ezidayisayo nakwezinye izindawo zasemadolobheni.128 Kusukela ngoJanuwari 2019, bekunamashaja asheshayo e-CHAdeMO angaphezu kuka-2,900 e-United States (kanye nangaphezu kuka-7,400 e-Japan kanye ne-7,900 eYurophu).129

Ngo-2016, i-CHAdeMO yamemezela ukuthi izothuthukisa izinga layo kusukela kuzinga layo lokuqala lokushaja elingu-70.

kW ukuhlinzeka ngo-150 kW.130 NgoJuni 2018 i-CHAdeMO yamemezela ukwethulwa kwamandla okushaja angu-400 kW, isebenzisa izintambo ezingu-1,000 V, 400 amp amp liquid-cooled.Ukushaja okuphezulu kuzotholakala ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo zezimoto ezinkulu zezentengiselwano ezifana namaloli namabhasi.131

Izinga lesibili lokushaja e-United States laziwa nge-CCS noma i-SAE Combo.Ikhishwe ngo-2011 yiqembu labakhiqizi bezimoto baseYurophu nase-US.Igamainhlanganiselaibonisa ukuthi ipulaki iqukethe kokubili ukushaja kwe-AC (kufika ku-43 kW) kanye nokushaja kwe-DC.132 In

I-Germany, umfelandawonye we-Charging Interface Initiative (CharIN) wasungulwa ukuze ukhulume nokwamukelwa kabanzi kwe-CCS.Ngokungafani ne-CHAdeMO, ipulaki ye-CCS yenza i-DC ne-AC ishaje ngembobo eyodwa, inciphisa isikhala nokuvuleka okudingekayo emzimbeni wemoto.Jaguar,

IVolkswagen, General Motors, BMW, Daimler, Ford, FCA kanye neHyundai baseka iCCS.U-Tesla uphinde wajoyina umfelandawonye futhi ngoNovemba 2018 wamemezela ukuthi izimoto zabo e-Europe zizofika zihlome amachweba wokushaja we-CCS.133 I-Chevrolet Bolt ne-BMW i3 ziphakathi kwama-EV adumile e-United States asebenzisa ukushaja kwe-CCS.Nakuba amashaja asheshayo e-CCS akhona enikeza ukushaja okungaba ngu-50 kW, uhlelo lwe-Electrify America luhlanganisa ukushaja okusheshayo okungu-350 kW, okungavumela ukushaja okucishe kuphelele emizuzwini eyi-10.

Izinga lesithathu lokushaja e-United States lisetshenziswa nguTesla, owethule inethiwekhi yakhe yokuphathelene neSupercharger e-United States ngoSepthemba 2012.134 Tesla

Amashaja amakhulu asebenzisa amandla angu-480 volts futhi anikeza ukushaja okungaphezu kuka-120 kW.Njengoba

kaJanuwari 2019, iwebhusayithi ye-Tesla ifake ohlwini lwezindawo ezingama-595 Supercharger e-United States, nezindawo ezengeziwe ezingama-420 “ezizayo maduze.”135 NgoMeyi 2018, uTesla waphakamisa ukuthi esikhathini esizayo ama-Supercharger ayo angase afinyelele amazinga wamandla afinyelela ku-350 kW.136

Ocwaningweni lwethu lwalo mbiko, sibuze abantu okwaxoxwa nabo base-US ukuthi babheka ukuntuleka kwendinganiso eyodwa kazwelonke yokushaja okusheshayo kwe-DC njengesithiyo ekuthathweni kwe-EV.Bambalwa abaphendula ngokuvuma.Izizathu zokuthi izindinganiso zokushaja okusheshayo kwe-DC zingabhekwa njengenkinga zihlanganisa:

● Ukushaja okuningi kwe-EV kwenzeka ekhaya nasemsebenzini, ngamashaja eLeveli 1 kanye no-2.

● Iningi lengqalasizinda eshajayo yomphakathi neyendawo yokusebenza kuze kube manje isebenzise amashaja eLeveli 2.

● Ama-adaptha ayatholakala avumela abanikazi be-EV ukuthi basebenzise amashaja amaningi asheshayo e-DC, ngisho noma i-EV neshaja zisebenzisa izindinganiso zokushaja ezihlukile.(Okuhlukile okuyinhloko, inethiwekhi ye-Tesla supercharging, ivuleleke kuphela ezimotweni ze-Tesla.) Ngokuphawulekayo, kukhona ukukhathazeka mayelana nokuphepha kwama-adaptha ashaja ngokushesha.

● Njengoba ipulaki nesixhumi simelela iphesenti elincane lezindleko zesiteshi esishaja ngokushesha, lokhu kuletha inselele encane yobuchwepheshe noma yezezimali kubanikazi besiteshi futhi kungase kuqhathaniswe namapayipi kaphethiloli we-octane ahlukene esiteshini sikaphethiloli.Iziteshi eziningi zokushaja zomphakathi zinamapulagi amaningi anamathiselwe eposini elilodwa lokushaja, okuvumela noma yiluphi uhlobo lwe-EV ukuthi lushaje lapho.Ngempela, iziphathimandla eziningi zidinga noma zikhuthaze lokhu.IYASHAJA IMOTO KAgesi ECHINA NASE-UNITED STATES

38 |ISIKHUNGO SENQUBOMGOMO YAMANDLA OMHLABA WONKE |COLUMBIA SIPA

Abanye abenzi bezimoto bathe inethiwekhi yokushaja ekhethekile imele isu eliqhudelanayo.UClaas Bracklo, inhloko ye-electromobility kwa-BMW kanye nosihlalo we-Charin, uthe ngonyaka ka-2018, "Sisungule i-Charin ukuze sakhe isikhundla samandla." ukuzimisela ukuvumela ezinye izinhlobo zezimoto ukuthi zisebenzise inethiwekhi yayo inqobo nje uma zinikela ngezimali ngokulinganayo nokusetshenziswa.138 I-Tesla iphinde ibe yingxenye ye-CharIN ephromotha i-CCS.NgoNovemba 2018, yamemezela ukuthi izimoto zeModel 3 ezithengiswa eYurophu zizofika zifakwe amachweba we-CCS.Abanikazi be-Tesla nabo bangathenga ama-adaptha ukuze bafinyelele kumashaja asheshayo e-CHAdeMO.139

C. Izinqubo Zokuxhumana Zokushaja Izimiso zokuxhumana zokushaja ziyadingeka ukuze kuthuthukiswe ukushaja okuhambisana nezidingo zomsebenzisi (ukubona isimo sokushaja, amandla kagesi ebhethri nokuphepha) kanye negridi (okuhlanganisa

umthamo wenethiwekhi yokusabalalisa, amanani entengo yesikhathi sokusetshenziswa kanye nezinyathelo zokuphendula isidingo).140 I-China GB/T kanye ne-CHAdeMO zisebenzisa iphrothokholi yokuxhumana eyaziwa ngokuthi i-CAN, kuyilapho i-CCS isebenza ne-PLC protocol.Izivumelwano zokuxhumana ezivulekile, njenge-Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) ezakhiwe yi-Open Charging Alliance, ziya ngokuya ziduma e-United States naseYurophu.

Ocwaningweni lwethu lwalo mbiko, inqwaba yabantu okwaxoxwa nabo base-US bacaphune umnyakazo oya kuzivumelwano zokuxhumana ezivulekile kanye nesofthiwe njengento ehamba phambili yenqubomgomo.Ikakhulukazi, amanye amaphrojekthi akhokhiswa umphakathi athola uxhaso ngaphansi kwe-American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) acashunwe njengakhethe abathengisi abanezinkundla zokuphathelene abahlangabezana nezinkinga zezimali kamuva, kwashiya amathuluzi aphukile ayedinga ukushintshwa.141 Amadolobha amaningi, izinsiza, kanye nokushaja amanethiwekhi athintwe kulolu cwaningo azwakalise ukusekela izimiso zokuxhumana ezivulekile kanye nezisusa zokuvumela abasingathi benethiwekhi abashajayo ukuze bashintshe abahlinzeki ngaphandle komthungo.142

D. Izindleko

Amashaja asekhaya ashibhile e-China kunase-United States.E-China, ishaja yasekhaya evamile engu-7 kW ithengiswa ku-inthanethi phakathi kuka-RMB 1,200 no-RMB 1,800.143 Ukufakwa kudinga izindleko ezengeziwe.(Ukuthengwa okuningi kwe-EV okuyimfihlo kuza neshaja futhi kufakiwe.) E-United States, amashaja asekhaya eLeveli 2 abiza ngebanga elingu-$450-$600, kanye nesilinganiso esilinganiselwa ku-$500 sokufakwa.Imishini yokushaja ngokushesha ye-DC engu-144 ibiza kakhulu womabili amazwe.Izindleko ziyahlukahluka kakhulu.Omunye uchwepheshe waseShayina okukhulunywe naye ngalo mbiko ulinganisele ukuthi ukufaka iposi eshaja ngokushesha engu-50 kW DC e-China ngokuvamile kubiza phakathi kuka-RMB 45,000 no-RMB 60,000, kanti iposi lokushaja lona libalwa cishe no-RMB 25,000 – RMB 35,000 kanye nekhebula, ingqalasizinda engaphansi kanye nokubalwa kwezimali kwabasebenzi. kokusele.145 E-United States, ukushaja okusheshayo kwe-DC kungabiza amashumi ezinkulungwane zamaRandi ngeposi.Izinto eziguquguqukayo ezinkulu ezithinta izindleko zokufaka imishini yokushaja esheshayo ye-DC zihlanganisa isidingo sokugenca amanzi, ukuthuthukiswa kwe-transformer, amasekhethi amasha noma athuthukisiwe namaphaneli kagesi kanye nokuthuthukiswa kobuhle.Izimpawu, izimvume kanye nokufinyelela kwabakhubazekile yizinto ezengeziwe zokucatshangelwa.146

E. Ukushaja Okungenantambo

Ukushaja okungenantambo kunikeza izinzuzo ezimbalwa, okuhlanganisa ubuhle, ukonga isikhathi kanye nokusebenziseka kalula.

Yayitholakala ngeminyaka yawo-1990 nge-EV1 (imoto kagesi yakuqala) kodwa ayivamile namuhla.147 Amasistimu wokushaja we-EV engenantambo anikezwa uhla lwezindleko ze-inthanethi ukusuka ku-$1,260 ukuya cishe ku-$3,000.148 Ukushaja kwe-Wireless EV kunenhlawulo esebenza kahle, nezinhlelo zamanje ezinikeza ukusebenza kahle kokushaja cishe u-85%.149 Imikhiqizo yamanje yokushaja okungenantambo inikeza ukudluliswa kwamandla ka-3–22 kW;Amashaja angenawaya atholakala kumamodeli e-EV amaningana asuka ku-Plugless charge angaba ngu-3.6 kW noma 7.2 kW, okulingana nokushaja kweLeveli 2.150 Nakuba abasebenzisi abaningi be-EV bebheka ukushajwa okungenantambo njengokungazifanele izindleko ezengeziwe,151 abanye abahlaziyi babikezele ukuthi ubuchwepheshe buzosakazeka maduze nje, futhi abenzi bezimoto abambalwa bamemezele ukuthi bazohlinzeka ngokushaja okungenantambo njengenketho kuma-EV azayo.Ukushaja okungenantambo kungase kukhange ezimotweni ezithile ezinemizila echaziwe, njengamabhasi omphakathi, futhi kuye kwahlongozwa imizila yemigwaqo emikhulu kagesi yesikhathi esizayo, nakuba izindleko eziphezulu, ukusebenza kahle kokushaja okuphansi kanye nesivinini sokushaja esinesivinini kungaba izithiyo.152

F. Ukushintshwa Kwebhethri

Ngobuchwepheshe bokushintsha amabhethri, izimoto zikagesi zingashintsha amabhethri azo asephelile ziwashintshele amanye ashajwe ngokugcwele.Lokhu kuzonciphisa ngokumangalisayo isikhathi esidingekayo sokushajwa kabusha i-EV, ngezinzuzo ezibalulekile ezingaba khona kubashayeli.

Amadolobha amaningana aseShayina nezinkampani okwamanje azama ukushintsha amabhethri, agxile ekusetshenzisweni okuphezulu kwama-EV emikhumbi, njengamatekisi.Idolobha lase-Hangzhou lisetshenziselwe ukushintsha kwamabhethri emikhumbini yalo yamatekisi, esebenzisa i-Zotye EVs.155 enziwe endaweni yase-Beijing yakhe iziteshi zokushintsha amabhethri eziningana ngomzamo osekelwa inkampani yendawo ye-automaker i-BAIC.Ekupheleni kuka-2017, i-BAIC yamemezela uhlelo lokwakha iziteshi ezishintshashintshayo eziyi-3,000 ezweni lonke ngo-2021.156 I-NIO yaseShayina eqalisa i-EV ihlela ukusebenzisa ubuchwepheshe bokushintsha amabhethri kwezinye zezimoto zayo futhi yamemezela ukuthi izokwakha iziteshi zokushintshisana eziyi-1,100 e-China.157 Amadolobha amaningana e-China— okuhlanganisa i-Hangzhou ne-Qingdao—ziphinde zasebenzisa ukushintsha kwamabhethri kumabhasi.158

E-United States, ingxoxo yokushintshaniswa kwebhethri yaphela ngemva kokuqothuka kwe-2013 kwe-Israel-swap yokuqalisa i-Project Better Place, eyayihlele inethiwekhi yeziteshi ezishintshayo zezimoto zabagibeli. indawo yokubonisa, isola ukuntula intshisekelo yabathengi.Kumbalwa uma kukhona ukuhlola okuqhubekayo mayelana nokushintshwa kwebhethri e-United States namuhla.154 Ukwehla kwezindleko zebhethri, futhi mhlawumbe ngezinga elincane ukuthunyelwa kwengqalasizinda eshaja ngokushesha ye-DC, kungenzeka kunciphise ukukhanga kokushintshwa kwebhethri I-united states.

Nakuba ukushintsha ibhethri kunikeza izinzuzo ezimbalwa, kunezihibe eziphawulekayo futhi.Ibhethri le-EV liyasinda futhi ngokuvamile litholakala ngaphansi kwemoto, lakha ingxenye yesakhiwo enokubekezelelwa okuncane kobunjiniyela bokuqondanisa nokuxhumana kukagesi.Amabhethri anamuhla ngokuvamile adinga ukupholisa, futhi ukuxhuma nokunqamula amasistimu okupholisa kunzima.159 Uma kubhekwa ubukhulu bawo nesisindo, amasistimu ebhethri kufanele alingane kahle ukuze agweme ukugoqa, ukunciphisa ukuguga nokugcina imoto iphakathi nendawo.Ukwakhiwa kwebhethri le-skateboard okuvamile kuma-EV anamuhla kuthuthukisa ukuphepha ngokwehlisa isikhungo sesisindo semoto kanye nokuthuthukisa ukuvikeleka kokuphahlazeka ngaphambili nangemuva.Amabhethri akhiphekayo atholakala esiqwini noma kwenye indawo azontula le nzuzo.Njengoba iningi labanikazi bezimoto likhokhisa ikakhulukazi ekhaya nomaIYASHAJA IMOTO KAgesi ECHINA NASE-UNITED STATESemsebenzini, ukushintsha ibhethri ngeke ngempela kuxazulule izinkinga zengqalasizinda yokushaja— kuzosiza kuphela ukubhekana nokushajwa komphakathi kanye nobubanzi.Futhi ngenxa yokuthi abenzi bezimoto abaningi abazimisele ngokumisa amaphakethe ebhethri noma imiklamo—izimoto ziklanywe eduze kwamabhethri namamotho abo, okwenza lokhu kube ukhiye wobunikazi bevalu160—ukushintshashintsha kwebhethri kungase kudinge inethiwekhi yesiteshi sokushintshwa ehlukile enkampanini ngayinye yezimoto noma amathuluzi ahlukene okushintshashintsha amamodeli ahlukene futhi osayizi bezimoto.Yize amaloli eselula ashintshanisa amabhethri ehlongozwa,161 le modeli yebhizinisi kusamele isetshenziswe.